End of Exams And Recap Of Modules

Exams are over and I want to do a recap summary for all the modules that I have taken for this semester of 2005/2005 Semester 1.

Social Variation In English:

Synopsis:

This module considers how variation in language use relates to broader variation in the daily experiences of individuals and groups. We examine how language constructs cultural abstractions such as social class, gender, and power relations and how these abstractions play out in language varieties and shape our defining characteristics. The module allows us to explore the interaction of language and society by drawing on linguistics, sociology, anthropology, and psychology, and to understand the practical implications of language variation for language policy and language education in multilingual societies such as Singapore.

1. Core Concepts in Sociolinguistics: Accent, dialect, variety, language, register, style

In this lecture, we discussed the core concepts of language variation, specifically register and style. We are introduced to such terms as form, function and attitudes. We learned that a range of concepts refer to linguistic variation and its determinants, such as dialect, sociolect, ethnolect, genderlect, register and style, etc. We also learned that languages are socioculturally constructed products. Factors such as history, politics, social values determine what varieties of language become a language.

We are brought to the attention that there are types of variation of language according to parameters of users and use. User related concepts include: accent, dialect, sociolect, ethnolect and genderlect. Use-related concepts include: register(field/tenor/mode) and style(formal-casual). Finally, we learned of the concept of speech community which comprises people who are in habitual contact by means of speech – either a shared language variety or shared way of interpreting different language varieties.

2. Attitudes towards linguistic varieties

Language expresses lifestyles and identities. Attitudes to the groups that have these lifestyles become associated with language and varieties and ultimately with the individual speakers of that language.

Methods of documenting attitudes may be direct or indirect. Direct methods include interviews and questionnaires. Indirect methods include observation, and formal tests. The matched guise technique is a standard technique for measuring attitudes. Findings from attitudes towards language will enable us to find out whether groups are in conflict; age of acquisition and gender distribution for societal values towards groups; what languages are highly valued as markers of national and ethnic identity; convergence and divergence in speech patterns; and attitude studies of teachers and second language learners will be important in classroom management.

3. Ethnicity and Multilingualism

We learned how society organize multilingual resources according to factors of domain(who speaks what language to whom and when?); diglossia(a language spoken in 2 distinct varieties – High and Low); interaction based(convergence and divergence); value based(in relation to cultural behaviour that reflects values associated with language and situations). We also reflected on linkages between societal organization and individual multilingual practices. There is situational codeswitching which include functional taxonomy and formal taxonomy of codeswitches. Finally, there is the concept of language loss and language shift which brings us to the implicational table.

4. Social Class and Language

We explore how speaker’s social class and social networks determine sociolinguistic patterning. We also discuss methods of collecting data.

Social stratification of post-vocalic R in New York City(Labov):

y-axis: % of post-vocalic R spoken
X-axis: Formality of speech





A unique feature of the graph shows a hypercorrection of the post-vocalic R when spoken by the lower middle class. This is due to their insecurity of their language and this manifests in their speech as they want to aspire towards a higher social mobility and thus speaks a “better” language and hypercorrect.

Finally, we are brought to the concept of social networks. Those we interact with will have a determining influence on our speech. Network density – the extent to which the people in a network interact with each other. And Network multiplexity – the extent to which different individuals in a network know each other in differing roles and capacities.

5. Prestige, Standardization and Language Change

We explore how synchronic variation of language in relation to change over time. All language change is preceded by variation, but not all variation leads to change. Change of language can be from above: introduced by dominant or most prestigious group, language with more prestige and spreads from formal styles of speech to casual style. Change from below: when variants in casual or less prestigious speech styles are adopted by formal prestigious styles. Gender effects: Women tend to be ahead of men in adopting new variants of language. Age may be a catalyst of change, usually adopted by younger speakers of a speech community. Language change may be due to social ideology: Speak Mandarin campaign, speak good English campaign. Finally, a language can become standardized, when political groups select that variety of language as the norm or official.

6. Pidgins and Creoles

In this lecture, we define pidgins and creoles. Pidgins and creoles are contact languages. Pidgins develop through contact between 2 different groups of language speakers who have mutually unintelligible languages. They develop due to the fact that they have a need to communicate with each other. Pidgins develop through conditions of trade and slavery, where there is incomplete second language learning and thus pidgins often have simple grammer, lexicon as well as limited morphological syntax. Pidgins derived their lexicon from the more prestigious language – normally the language of the colonizers, and the grammer from the indigenous or native language. Creoles are created when pidgins become nativised – when pidgins are acquired by the children of the pidgin speakers.

Stages in the development of pidgins:

Jargon stage – Quasi-stable pidgin – stable and expanded pidgin – creole – repidginization – post-creole continuum – decreolization

7. New Englishes

We discuss the factors behind the rise of New Englishes. The spread of English is due to migration and colonialism. Kachru’s three-circle model of English – The inner circle(Native Speakers of English – English as a Native language); the outer circle(English as a second language for the speakers); and the expanding circle(English as a foreign language for the speakers). Finally, we consider the alternatives that can determine the future of New Englishes – whether it will develop into mutually unintelligible languages, or other alternative scenarios for its development.

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Place, Environment and Society

Synopsis:

This module provides an introduction to contemporary geography, explaining processes and problems of physical environments and human landscapes. Beginning with questions like “what is Geography” and “how do Geographers look at the world”, this module helps us understand our place in a changing world. It provides a basic examination of processes in global environments: environmental problems, management and solutions. It will also explore critical issues in space and society: flows of capital, culture and people as well as place identity. The module concludes with case studies highlighting the interconnections within and between physical environments and the human world.

1. Human Geography

i. Geographical Imaginations

Here, we define the difference between geography as the world around us and Geography as the subject. We are brought to the concept of geographical imagination: the way we understand the geographical world and the way we represent it to ourselves and to others. We learned that maps are powerful tools used in geographical imaginations. Next, we discussed the relation of geography with the concept of globalization. Globalisation is the processes whereby the world becomes more functionally interconnected and integrated. Geography in globalization states the global versus local dialectic: spaces of flows versus spaces of places. There are four different realms of globalization processes: flows of capital and goods; movement of people; diffusion of information and cultures; and rise of international organizations. Geography of globalization states that there is homogenization and differentiation. As a result of globalization, places become more similar, or more differentiated.

ii. Interconnected Worlds

a. Flows of Capital

Here, we discuss economic globalization and the rise of the global economy. The change of an old international division of labour to a new international division of labour. Old international division of labour – When developing nations supply raw materials, developed nations build the goods and sell it back to the developing nations. New international division of labour – When developed nations move goods, capital, finance and firms to developing countries; this include foreign direct investment and foreign indirect investments.

b. Tourism and Migration

We discuss the nature and processes of international migration – early processes of migration includes colonization and slavery, wars and industrialization; contemporary global migration involves overseas labour recruitment. The concept of transnationalism – 2-way flows of migrants back and forth from their home and host countries. Implications of international migration – stretching social relations across space; perpetuating uneven development at all spatial scales; changing nature of places and identity.

c. Cultural diffusion

We discuss the concept of diffusion – the spatial and temporal process through which information, ideas and practices are transmitted from one location to another. The nature and processes of cultural diffusion – how does cultural diffusion spread in historical times and contemporary times. Historical forms of cultural globalization includes world religion, world empires, nationalism and secular ideologies. Contemporary forms of global cultures include the corporate symbols – the 10 global brand names and popular culture. The geographical implications of cultural diffusion includes homogenization and differentiation; uneven diffusion at all spatial scales.

d. Place and Identities

We discuss the concepts of place and place. Place defined as an area or locality of any scale which acquires meaning to an individual. How do people develop a sense of place? It can be a natural human instinct; acquired over time through prolong contact; constructed by power relations or for political purposes. The concept of placelessness where people for a certain reason cannot identify with a place. An urban sense of place: global cities including London, Singapore and also the English landscape.

2. Physical Geography

a. Global Climates – global scope of climates; low-latitude climates
b. Global climate change – Past and future; global warming
c. Global water issues – Global hydrological cycle; ocean-atmosphere exchange
d. Earth surface processes and landforms – Formation of landscapes and landforms; weathering
e. Overview of Natural Hazards – Catastrophic effects on natural and man-made system(hurricanes, earthquakes, landslides…)

Temperature Graph that we plotted for Geography practical on Global Warming:





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Logic

Synopsis:

An introduction to the fundamentals of logic: the study of reasoning. Although logical reasoning is a characteristically human endeavour, a reflective grasp of fundamental logical concepts will take our ability to reason a clear level higher. By the end of the module, we will have a firm handle on the genral process of logical reasoning, various well-established methods of reasoning, various common pitfalls of reasoning, and how to critically assess pieces of reasoning we may encounter in everyday life or in an academic setting.


Part I:

Arguments – Premises vs Conclusion
Deduction vs induction
Argument chains
Evaluating Arguments

Part II:

Argument forms
The venn diagram test of validity

Part III:

Common informal fallacies of reasoning

1. The false analogy
2. The false dilemma
3. The rhetorical question
4. Spurious therefore
5. Shifting the Goalpost
6. Arguing Ad Hoc
7. Armchair Speculation
8. Wrongly shifting the burden of proof
9. Creating a false burden of proof
10. Arguing from ignorance
11. Arguing from popularity(Ad populum)
12. The false appeal to authority
13. False Cause(Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc)
14. Hasty Generalization
15. The fallacy of division
16. The fallacy of composition
17. Equivocation
18. Begging the question(Petitio Principii)
19. The straw man
20. Arguing Ad Hominem
21. The Red Herring
22. Lip Service

Part IV:

Propositional Logic
The Truth-table test of validity



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Theories of Communications and New Media

Synopsis:

This module is designed to help us understand and appreciate the structures and functions of the media of mass communication, and the processes by which they inform, persuade, and entertain members of society. We explore how society has created and shaped media, and how media in turn exert powerful and frequently misunderstood influences in our environment. Because of the advance of new media, this module will examine new information and media systems and their social political and economic impact on individuals and society, with an emphasis on convergence and integration of media technologies and industries. Considering the new media’s reliance on conventions of old media, understanding of media communication in general is more required in this Information society.

1. Introduction lecture

This lecture introduces us to the basic concepts of the module. We learn that for mass communications and new media, the theories are: numerous; interdisciplinary; constructed; dynamic; and relates to new media. The oldest form of theory relates to the mass society paradigm which states that media influence cause direct and same effects on every individual in society. The theory is known as the magic bullet or hypodemic needle effect. The following theory that develop is the limited effects theory – People’s reaction to the mass media is dependent on their education levels, and also media messages do not change people’s pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. This is known as the attitude change theory – selective exposure, retention and perception. Users and gratifications puts the audience in a more central position in the use of media, and contrasts with mass society theory in that media do not do things to people but people use media according to their wishes. Finally social cognitive theory states that people learn behaviours by modeling the behaviours of others.

2. Media and Public Opinion

In this lecture, we are taught the concept of public opinion – beliefs held by a number of people in a given society and opinions on national concerns and social issues, freely expressed, intended to influence public life. Public opinion can be from grass root(bottom up) approach or from social construction(top down from media industry) approach. The use of opinion polls by political leaders to find out what are the public opinions of the public. Agenda setting theory states that media cannot tell the public what to think but it can tell the public to think about certain issues. Media cannot change people’s attitudes and beliefs but it can influence the salience of an issue for example by repetition of coverage. Agenda setting is the ongoing competition among issue proponents to gain the attention of media, public and policy elites. The knowledge gap hypothesis states that as the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, those segments of population with a higher socioeconomic status will tend to acquire information at a faster rate than those of lower status. So the gap in knowledge between this segment will tend to increase, rather than decrease. The main factor that can close the knowledge gap is motivation and access to the technologies to gain information. When these factors are introduced, the gap is seen to decrease.

The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis:




3. Uses and Gratifications

This concept states that people weigh the level of reward from a given message, medium or experience according to the amount of effort that is required to get that reward. It brings the audience back into a more central position in communication theory. This theory basically states what the audience do with the media.

U & G for mobile phones: immediacy, mobility, sociability, reassurance and stylish.

U & G for TV soap operas: routine, escapist fantasy, debate on topical issues, etc.

U& G for internet: Process(Surfing), content(information) and sociability(instant messaging, chat rooms, forums), etc.

Criticisms:

- Unable to find what are the true intentions for audience use of that media.
- Media use can be an end in itself.
- Media can be forced onto people, eg. Mircosoft
- Questionnaires are not the best way to study human experience, while in-depth interviews are subjective.

4. Media Violence

Deals with the concept that media violence can have negative influence on the audience and the situation is serious because large amounts of violence are shown in the media. Television can have negative influences on the audience: aggressiveness; desensitization; change of perceptions and attitudes towards people and society; and fear. Other effects: sensitization and catharsis. The cause of television violence aggressiveness is explained by 3 theories – social learning theory, cognitive priming effect and cultivation theory.

5. Semiotics in Media Communication

Semiotics is the study of signs and sign systems and how meanings are created and conveyed from these systems. A sign consists of a signifier(image or sound) and the signified(mental concept). A sign can be iconic, indexical or symbolic. A code is a set of rules that furnishes cues to the decipherment of meaning. There are 2 levels of signification which includes denotation(literal meaning) and connotation(myth). There is a preferred reading and the text can be closed open. Audience can interpret the text using dominant, negotiated or oppositional codes. A metaphor is a figure of speech or visual device that transposes meanings from one plane of reality to another. Metaphor includes: similes, metaphor of war and sex. Metonymy is a figure of speech or visual device that consist a part of something that stands for the whole. Another metonymy can give us a complete different picture of the same situation.

6. Soft Cities

Computers have developed from a calculating device to become a social device used for communications. The internet is likened to a city where there are communities for people to meet and discuss issues. Graphical vitual communities have become replaced by text based instances of virtual devices like forums, instant messaging and blogs. The internet is not separate from the real world but it exists inside the real world. Social issues are still prevalent from the real world inside the internet like hate sites, disagreements among individuals, etc. The internet is owned by commercial companies and what you say and do in the internet will be subjected to libel laws, anti-hate laws, anti-sedition and censorship laws and Out of Bounds markers in Singapore. Cyberspace can give us a false sense of acting out fantasies and unlimited possibilities online and thus receive gratifications one feels entitled to. Communities in cyberspace consists of people with similar interests where they congregate. In this sense, people in cyberspace will lose their ability to relate to people who are different from them in the real world.

7. Computer Mediated Communication

CMC is any form of communication between 2 or more people who interact via separate computers online. CMC can occur through asynchronously(emails) or synchronously(instant messaging). CMC is first viewed as an impersonal form of communication. The cues filtered out approach states that due to lack of paralanguage, people are unable to relate to other people online as intimately as they do in the real world. This is not usually the case. People use emoticons to enhance their online experience and given enough time, people can develop a strong interpersonal relationship with the other person they are interacting with. Social Identity Deindividuation Theory(SIDE) states that people can develop hyperpersonal experience of the other person that they are communicating with online: They can inflate their impression of the other party due to excessive weight put onto the informational textual cues.